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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
1.1 Relationship if this handbook to ITU-R recommendations
1.2 Application of this handbook
CHAPTER 2 – IONOSPHERIC PROPERTIES
2.1 The Ionosphere
2.2 Ionospheric profiles and structural features
2.2.1 Physical processes of the ionosphere
2.2.1.1 Ionization production and loss
2.2.1.2 Electron collision frequency
2.2.2 D region (50-90 km)
2.2.3 E region (90-130 km)
2.2.4 Sporadic E (Es)
2.2.4.1 Mid-latitude Es
2.2.4.2 Equatorial Es
2.2.4.3 Auroral Es
2.2.5 F region (130-500 km)
2.2.6 F region irregularities (Spread F)
2.2.7 Topside ionosphere
2.3 Geographical features
2.3.1 Ionospheric control points
2.3.2 High latitudes
2.3.2.1 Relationship to magnetic and solar activity
2.3.2.2 The auroral oval
2.3.2.3 The outer precipitation zone
2.3.2.4 Storms and substorms
2.3.2.5 Ionization increases after geomagnetic storms (the post-storm effect)
2.3.2.6 Polar cap events
2.3.2.7 High-latitude trough
2.3.2.8 High latitude irregularities
2.3.2.9 High-latitude F region
2.3.3 Mid-latitudes
2.3.4 Equatorial latitudes
2.3.4.1 Equatorial anomaly
2.3.4.2 Equatorial irregularities
2.4 Solar cycle effects on propagation
2.4.1 Solar cycle
2.4.2 Annual cycle
2.4.3 Diurnal cycle
2.5 Modelling of ionospheric properties
2.5.1 Empirical models
2.5.2 Physical models
2.5.3 Hybrid models
2.6 Ionospheric variability and disturbances
2.6.1 Solar-induced disturbances
2.6.1.1 Ionospheric storms
2.6.1.2 Sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs)
2.6.2 Disturbances of atmospheric origin
2.6.2.1 Winter variability of D-region ionization
2.6.2.2 Travelling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs)
CHAPTER 3 – IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
3.1 Wave Guide Propagation
3.2 Sky-Wave Propagation
3.3 Trans-Ionospheric Propagation
CHAPTER 4 – PROPAGATION AT VERY LOW FREQUENCIES BELOW ABOUT 500 kHz
4.1 ELF, VLF and LF Propagation
4.2 Propagation Characteristics
4.2.1 The waveguide mode propagation of VLF waves to great distances
4.2.2 Normal diurnal variations of phase and amplitude at middle and low latitudes
4.2.3 Phase stability
4.2.4 Fading of the waves
4.2.4.1 Daytime fading
4.2.4.2 Night-time fading
4.2.5 Variations during ionospheric disturbances
4.2.5.1 Sudden ionospheric Disturbance (SID’s) associated with solar X-ray events
4.2.6 High latitudes
4.3 Calculating Field and Strenght: early approaches
4.4 ITU-R Method of calculating field strenght at VLF and LF
4.4.1 The Wave-Hop method
4.4.2 The Waveguide Mode method
4.5 Reliability of the Wave-Hop method
CHAPTER 5 – PROPAGATION AT FREQUENCIES BETWEEN 150 kHz AND 1 700 kHz
5.1 Field strenght measurement and analysis
5.1.1 Field strengths at distances of less than 300 km
5.1.2 Field strengths at distances between 300 and 3 500 km
5.1.2.1 Region 1
5.1.2.2 Region 2
5.1.2.3 Region 3
5.1.3 Field strengths at distances greater than 3 500 km
5.2 Variations of field strenghts and factors affecting propagation
5.2.1 Fading rate
5.2.2 Amplitude distribution
5.2.3 Diurnal variations
5.2.4 Variation with season
5.2.4.1 LF band
5.2.4.2 MF band
5.2.5 Variation with solar and magnetic activity
5.2.6 Influence of the ground on radiation towards the ionosphere
5.2.7 Excess polarization coupling loss, Lp
5.2.8 Field strengths exceeded for different percentages of time
5.3 Discussion on prediction methods
5.3.1 Sky-wave prediction methods in use at LF and MF
5.3.2 Comparison of predicted field strengths with measured data
5.3.2.1 Region 1
5.3.2.2 Region 2
5.3.2.3 Asia
5.3.3 Comparison of prediction methods
5.3.3.1 The Cairo North-South curve
5.3.3.2 Region 2 method
5.3.3.3 Recommendation ITU-R P.1147
5.3.3.4 Modified FCC method
5.4 LF/MF Skywave propagation at daytime
5.4.1 Seasonal variation
5.4.2 Effects of latitude
5.4.3 Effects of solar activity
5.4.4 Statistical distribution of field strengths
5.4.5 Daytime sky-wave field strength and interference levels
5.4.5.1 MF annual median value
5.4.5.2 MF upper decile value
5.4.5.3 MF top-percentile value
5.4.5.4 LF cases
CHAPTER 6 – HF PROPAGATION
6.1 HF Circuit design
6.2 Requirement for predictions
6.3 Development of prediction techniques
6.4 Noise and Interference
6.5 Variations of field strenght and propagation features
6.5.1 HF signal characteristics – multipath
6.5.1.1 Time delay
6.5.1.2 Amplitude fading
6.5.2 Absorption
6.5.3 Fading
6.5.3.1 Causes of fading
6.5.3.2 Characteristics of amplitude fading
6.5.3.3 Fading allowances for service planning
6.5.4 Regional anomalies
6.5.4.1 Features of fading encountered in the Tropical Zone
6.5.4.2 High latitude effects
6.6 Reliability of HF radio Systems
6.6.1 Basic circuit, reception and service reliability (BCR, BRR, BSR)
6.6.2 Overall circuit, reception and service reliability (OCR, ORR, OSR)
6.6.3 Basic path and communications reliabilities (BPR, R)
6.6.4 Computation of compatibility
6.7 Service needs
6.8 The HF radio Sky-Wave propagation model
6.8.1 Path lengths up to 7 000 km
6.8.1.1 Monthly median path basic MUF and operational MUF
6.8.1.2 E-layer basic MUF
6.8.1.3 F2-layer basic MUF
6.8.1.4 Oblique ray paths1
6.8.1.5 Field strength
6.8.1.6 Transmission losses
6.8.1.7 Median available receiver power
6.8.2 Path lengths beyond 9 000 km
6.8.2.1 Introduction
6.8.2.2 Monthly median path basic MUF
6.8.2.3 Field strength
6.8.2.4 Median available receiver power
6.8.3 Paths between 7 000 and 9 000 km
6.8.4 System performance parameters
6.9 Antenna considerations
6.9.1 Antenna characteristics
6.9.2 Gain
6.9.3 Radiation pattern
6.9.4 Polarization
6.9.5 Ground effects
6.9.6 Radiated power
6.10 Application of prediction to HF sustem planning and design
6.11 Operational constraints
6.11.1 Available frequencies (bands)
6.11.2 Interference
6.11.3 Digital systems
6.11.3.1 Signal-to-noise ratio
6.11.3.2 Time dispersion
6.11.3.3 Frequency dispersion
6.12 Selection of system parameters
6.12.1 Selection of frequencies
6.12.2 Selection of antennas
6.12.3 Selection of transmitter power
6.12.4 Location of terminals
6.13 Overview of computer programs
CHAPTER 7 – PROPAGATION AT VHF AND ABOVE – EARTH-SPACE
7.1 Earth-Space Propagation
7.2 Total electron content (TEC)
7.3 Effects due to background ionization
7.3.1 Faraday rotation
7.3.2 Group delay
7.3.3 Dispersion
7.3.4 Doppler frequency shift
7.3.5 Direction of arrival of the ray
7.3.6 Absorption
7.3.6.1 Auroral absorption
7.3.6.2 Polar cap absorption
7.4 Effects due to ionization irregularities
7.4.1 Scintillation effects
7.4.2 Geographic, seasonal and solar dependence
7.4.3 Scintillation models
7.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 8 – PROPAGATION AT VHF AND ABOVE – TERRESTRIAL
8.1 Ionized propagation at VHF and above
8.1.1 Normal F-region propagation at VHF
8.1.2 Trans-equatorial propagation (TEP)
8.1.3 Sporadic-E propagation
8.1.4 Meteor-trail ionization
8.1.5 Auroral ionization
8.1.6 Ionospheric scatter propagation
8.1.7 Summary
CHAPTER 9 – GLOSSARY
9.1 Ionosphere and Waves
9.2 Signals, Noise and Interference
9.3 Antenna and Radiation
9.4 Radiowave Propagation
9.5 Fading and Loss
9.6 Reliability and Compability